Paradigmas de desigualdad: Mujeres en la ciencia en México, Cuba y el Salvador

Angélica Mendieta Ramírez; Ana Calzada Reyes; Julia Marta Marroquín Chicas

Authors

Angélica Mendieta Ramírez Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9344-8653
Ana Calzada Reyes Centro de Neurociencias de Cuba https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0082-2963
Julia Marta Marroquín Chicas Universidad Francisco Gavidia/El Salvador https://orcid.org/0009-0003-4484-2656

Keywords:

Mujeres en la ciencia. Género y ciencia. América Latina. Desigualdad sistémica. Políticas científicas. Agencia colectiva.

Abstract

The participation of women in science and technology in Latin America presents a fundamental paradox: while the region exhibits one of the highest rates of female enrollment in higher education STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) programs worldwide, this massive representation does not correspond to equitable presence in the upper echelons of academic and leadership careers (UNESCO, 2021). This review article argues that, although challenges such as the "leaky pipeline" and the "glass ceiling" are cross-cutting, historical trajectories and institutional responses are deeply contingent on the political and social contexts of each nation. Through a narrative and comparative analysis of three paradigmatic cases—Mexico, Cuba, and El Salvador—the different models of female insertion into science, their impacts, and resistance strategies are examined. The emergence of organized and transnational responses, such as the Congresses of Researchers of the SNII and Ibero-America, is specifically analyzed as an explicit strategy to combat these systemic inequalities. It is concluded that, despite national differences, the transformation of the scientific ecosystem towards equity requires public policies that address structural and cultural barriers, and the disproportionate social impact of women-led research in the region is recognized.

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Author Biographies

Angélica Mendieta Ramírez, Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla

PhD in Sociology, Postdoctoral researcher in Education, Master's in Political Science, Bachelor's in Law, Bachelor's in Communication Sciences, Expert in Internal and External Communication in Organizations in Spain. She completed three residencies at Harvard University in 2004, The City University of New York in 2014, and at the Complutense University of Madrid in 2014. She is a member of the SNI Level 2 and the leader of the Consolidated Academic Group "Political Communication." She is the author of the concepts of Electopartidismo and the Political Communication Loop, and she has authored and co-authored more than 35 books and over 30 articles in peer-reviewed and indexed journals. Notable works include “Research Designs: Methodological Coaching as a Strategy” with a foreword by Dr. Roberto Hernández Sampieri, “Democracy in Times of Uncertainty” with a foreword by Dr. Raúl Fuentes Navarro, and “Political Culture of Women in the State of Puebla.” She is the President of the Congress of Researchers of the SNII and Ibero-America and the President of the Community Radio Congress. She was the Director of the Faculty of Communication Sciences at the Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla from 2017 to 2025. Currently, she is a Research Professor at BUAP and President of the Network of Women Scientists.

Ana Calzada Reyes, Centro de Neurociencias de Cuba

Doctor of Medical Sciences, Specialist in Clinical Neurophysiology, Master in Sleep: Physiology and Medicine, she is a full professor and researcher. She has completed three residencies: at the Neurocrecer Clinic in Seville, Spain (2012), at LION Lab, Sainte-Justine University Hospital Research Center, Montreal (2018), and at Sleep Med in Costa Rica (2022). She is the author and co-author of more than 30 articles in indexed journals, including: “Electroencephalographic and morphometric abnormalities in psychopath offenders,” “Spectral quantitative and semiquantitative EEG provide complementary information on the life-long effects of early childhood malnutrition on cognitive decline,” and “Sex differences in QEEG in adolescents with conduct disorder and psychopathic traits.” Her main research topics relate to the medical and neurobiological bases of violent behavior, the brain traces of early malnutrition, sleep medicine, and the neuropsychiatric sequelae of COVID-19. She participates in national and international research on these topics. Currently, she is the Head of the Clinical Neurophysiology Department at the Cuban Neuroscience Center and a member of the executive committee of the Cuban Neuroscience Society. She has received awards from the Cuban Academy of Sciences in 2022 and 2023 in the category of scientific research and received an honorable mention at the Latin American Sleep Medicine Congress in 2024.

Julia Marta Marroquín Chicas , Universidad Francisco Gavidia/El Salvador

She holds a Master's degree in Design, Management, and Project Direction from the International Ibero-American University of Puerto Rico. She has participated in the International Visitor Leadership Program by the U.S. Embassy in El Salvador. Currently, she is a member of the Executive Committee of the Observatory of Social Responsibility in Latin America and the Caribbean (ORSALC) and is part of the Network of Women Leaders in Higher Education in El Salvador. With over 10 years of experience in social responsibility issues, she has coordinated significant grants and projects in various areas, with particular focus on gender-based violence in the last two years. She has participated as a speaker both nationally and internationally on social responsibility topics and is a researcher in sustainability issues. She is currently the Director of Social Outreach at the Francisco Gavidia University and coordinates the Social Responsibility Committee.